13 Templates [temp]

template<class T> class B { /* ... */ };
template<class T> class D : public B<T> { /* ... */ };

void f(void*);
void f(B<int>*);

void g(D<int>* p, D<char>* pp, D<double>* ppp) {
  f(p);             // instantiation of D<int> required: call f(B<int>*)
  B<char>* q = pp;  // instantiation of D<char> required: convert D<char>* to B<char>*
  delete ppp;       // instantiation of D<double> required
}

template<class T> class X;
X<char> ch;         // error: incomplete type X<char>

template<class T>
struct C {
  void f() { T x; }
  void g() = delete;
};
C<void> c;                      // OK, definition of C<void>​::​f is not instantiated at this point
template<> void C<int>::g() { } // error: redefinition of C<int>​::​g

template<class T, class U>
struct Outer {
  template<class X, class Y> struct Inner;
  template<class Y> struct Inner<T, Y>;         // #1a
  template<class Y> struct Inner<T, Y> { };     // #1b; OK: valid redeclaration of #1a
  template<class Y> struct Inner<U, Y> { };     // #2
};

Outer<int, int> outer;                          // error at #2

template<typename T> struct Friendly {
  template<typename U> friend int f(U) { return sizeof(T); }
};
Friendly<char> fc;
Friendly<float> ff;                             // error: produces second definition of f(U)

template<class T> struct Z {
  void f();
  void g();
};

void h() {
  Z<int> a;         // instantiation of class Z<int> required
  Z<char>* p;       // instantiation of class Z<char> not required
  Z<double>* q;     // instantiation of class Z<double> not required

  a.f();            // instantiation of Z<int>​::​f() required
  p->g();           // instantiation of class Z<char> required, and
                    // instantiation of Z<char>​::​g() required
}

template<typename T> constexpr int f() { return T::value; }
template<bool B, typename T> void g(decltype(B ? f<T>() : 0));
template<bool B, typename T> void g(...);
template<bool B, typename T> void h(decltype(int{B ? f<T>() : 0}));
template<bool B, typename T> void h(...);
void x() {
  g<false, int>(0); // OK, B ? f<T>() : 0 is not potentially constant evaluated
  h<false, int>(0); // error, instantiates f<int> even though B evaluates to false and
                    // list-initialization of int from int cannot be narrowing
}

template <class T> struct S {
  operator int();
};

void f(int);
void f(S<int>&);
void f(S<float>);

void g(S<int>& sr) {
  f(sr);            // instantiation of S<int> allowed but not required
                    // instantiation of S<float> allowed but not required
};

namespace N {
  template<class T> class List {
  public:
    T* get();
  };
}

template<class K, class V> class Map {
public:
  N::List<V> lt;
  V get(K);
};

void g(Map<const char*,int>& m) {
  int i = m.get("Nicholas");
}

template<class T> void f(T x, T y = ydef(T()), T z = zdef(T()));

class  A { };

A zdef(A);

void g(A a, A b, A c) {
  f(a, b, c);       // no default argument instantiation
  f(a, b);          // default argument z = zdef(T()) instantiated
  f(a);             // error: ydef is not declared
}

template<class T> class X {
  X<T>* p;          // OK
  X<T*> a;          // implicit generation of X<T> requires
                    // the implicit instantiation of X<T*> which requires
                    // the implicit instantiation of X<T**> which …
};

template<typename T> concept C = sizeof(T) > 2;
template<typename T> concept D = C<T> && sizeof(T) > 4;

template<typename T> struct S {
  S() requires C<T> { }         // #1
  S() requires D<T> { }         // #2
};

S<char> s1;                     // error: no matching constructor
S<char[8]> s2;                  // OK, calls #2

template<typename T> struct S1 {
  template<typename U>
    requires false
  struct Inner1;                // ill-formed, no diagnostic required
};

template<typename T> struct S2 {
  template<typename U>
    requires (sizeof(T[-(int)sizeof(T)]) > 1)
  struct Inner2;                // ill-formed, no diagnostic required
};

template<class T> class Array { void mf(); };
template class Array<char>;
template void Array<int>::mf();

template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ }
template void sort(Array<char>&);       // argument is deduced here

namespace N {
  template<class T> void f(T&) { }
}
template void N::f<int>(int&);

namespace N {
  template<class T> class Y { void mf() { } };
}

template class Y<int>;          // error: class template Y not visible in the global namespace

using N::Y;
template class Y<int>;          // error: explicit instantiation outside of the namespace of the template

template class N::Y<char*>;             // OK: explicit instantiation in namespace N
template void N::Y<double>::mf();       // OK: explicit instantiation in namespace N

template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ }

// instantiate sort(Array<int>&) -- template-argument deduced
template void sort<>(Array<int>&);

char* p = 0;
template<class T> T g(T x = &p) { return x; }
template int g<int>(int);       // OK even though &p isn't an int.

template<class T> class stream;

template<> class stream<char> { /* ... */ };

template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ }

template<> void sort<char*>(Array<char*>&);

template<> class X<int> { /* ... */ };          // error: X not a template

template<class T> class X;

template<> class X<char*> { /* ... */ };        // OK: X is a template

template<class T> struct A {
  struct B { };
  template<class U> struct C { };
};

template<> struct A<int> {
  void f(int);
};

void h() {
  A<int> a;
  a.f(16);          // A<int>​::​f must be defined somewhere
}

// template<> not used for a member of an explicitly specialized class template
void A<int>::f(int) { /* ... */ }

template<> struct A<char>::B {
  void f();
};
// template<> also not used when defining a member of an explicitly specialized member class
void A<char>::B::f() { /* ... */ }

template<> template<class U> struct A<char>::C {
  void f();
};
// template<> is used when defining a member of an explicitly specialized member class template
// specialized as a class template
template<>
template<class U> void A<char>::C<U>::f() { /* ... */ }

template<> struct A<short>::B {
  void f();
};
template<> void A<short>::B::f() { /* ... */ }              // error: template<> not permitted

template<> template<class U> struct A<short>::C {
  void f();
};
template<class U> void A<short>::C<U>::f() { /* ... */ }    // error: template<> required

class String { };
template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v) { /* ... */ }

void f(Array<String>& v) {
  sort(v);          // use primary template sort(Array<T>&), T is String
}

template<> void sort<String>(Array<String>& v);     // error: specialization after use of primary template
template<> void sort<>(Array<char*>& v);            // OK: sort<char*> not yet used
template<class T> struct A {
  enum E : T;
  enum class S : T;
};
template<> enum A<int>::E : int { eint };           // OK
template<> enum class A<int>::S : int { sint };     // OK
template<class T> enum A<T>::E : T { eT };
template<class T> enum class A<T>::S : T { sT };
template<> enum A<char>::E : char { echar };        // error: A<char>​::​E was instantiated
                                                    // when A<char> was instantiated
template<> enum class A<char>::S : char { schar };  // OK

namespace N {
  template<class T> class X { /* ... */ };
  template<class T> class Y { /* ... */ };

  template<> class X<int> { /* ... */ };        // OK: specialization in same namespace
  template<> class Y<double>;                   // forward-declare intent to specialize for double
}

template<> class N::Y<double> { /* ... */ };    // OK: specialization in enclosing namespace
template<> class N::Y<short> { /* ... */ };     // OK: specialization in enclosing namespace

template<class T> class X;                      // X is a class template
template<> class X<int>;

X<int>* p;                                      // OK: pointer to declared class X<int>
X<int> x;                                       // error: object of incomplete class X<int>

template<class T> class Array { /* ... */ };
template<class T> void sort(Array<T>& v);

// explicit specialization for sort(Array<int>&)
// with deduced template-argument of type int
template<> void sort(Array<int>&);

template<class T> void f(T) { /* ... */ }
template<class T> inline T g(T) { /* ... */ }

template<> inline void f<>(int) { /* ... */ }   // OK: inline
template<> int g<>(int) { /* ... */ }           // OK: not inline

template<class T> struct A {
  void f(T);
  template<class X1> void g1(T, X1);
  template<class X2> void g2(T, X2);
  void h(T) { }
};

// specialization
template<> void A<int>::f(int);

// out of class member template definition
template<class T> template<class X1> void A<T>::g1(T, X1) { }

// member template specialization
template<> template<class X1> void A<int>::g1(int, X1);

// member template specialization
template<> template<>
  void A<int>::g1(int, char);           // X1 deduced as char
template<> template<>
  void A<int>::g2<char>(int, char);     // X2 specified as char

// member specialization even if defined in class definition
template<> void A<int>::h(int) { }

template<class T1> class A {
  template<class T2> class B {
    void mf();
  };
};
template<> template<> class A<int>::B<double>;
template<> template<> void A<char>::B<char>::mf();

template <class T1> class A {
  template<class T2> class B {
    template<class T3> void mf1(T3);
    void mf2();
  };
};
template <> template <class X>
  class A<int>::B {
      template <class T> void mf1(T);
  };
template <> template <> template<class T>
  void A<int>::B<double>::mf1(T t) { }
template <class Y> template <>
  void A<Y>::B<double>::mf2() { }       // error: B<double> is specialized but
                                        // its enclosing class template A is not