11 Classes [class]

struct complex {
  complex();
  complex(double);
  complex(double,double);
};

complex sqrt(complex,complex);

complex a(1);                   // initialized by calling complex(double) with argument 1
complex b = a;                  // initialized as a copy of a
complex c = complex(1,2);       // initialized by calling complex(double,double) with arguments 1 and 2
complex d = sqrt(b,c);          // initialized by calling sqrt(complex,complex) with d as its result object
complex e;                      // initialized by calling complex()
complex f = 3;                  // initialized by calling complex(double) with argument 3
complex g = { 1, 2 };           // initialized by calling complex(double, double) with arguments 1 and 2

complex v[6] = { 1, complex(1,2), complex(), 2 };

struct X {
  int i;
  float f;
  complex c;
} x = { 99, 88.8, 77.7 };

struct A { A(); };
typedef A global_A;
struct B { };
struct C: public A, public B { C(); };
C::C(): global_A() { }          // mem-initializer for base A

struct A { A(); };
struct B: public virtual A { };
struct C: public A, public B { C(); };
C::C(): A() { }                 // error: which A?

struct C {
  C( int ) { }                  // #1: non-delegating constructor
  C(): C(42) { }                // #2: delegates to #1
  C( char c ) : C(42.0) { }     // #3: ill-formed due to recursion with #4
  C( double d ) : C('a') { }    // #4: ill-formed due to recursion with #3
};

struct B1 { B1(int); /* ... */ };
struct B2 { B2(int); /* ... */ };
struct D : B1, B2 {
  D(int);
  B1 b;
  const int c;
};

D::D(int a) : B2(a+1), B1(a+2), c(a+3), b(a+4) { /* ... */ }
D d(10);

struct A {
  A() : v(42) { }   // error
  const int& v;
};

struct A {
  A();
};

struct B {
  B(int);
};

struct C {
  C() { }               // initializes members as follows:
  A a;                  // OK: calls A​::​A()
  const B b;            // error: B has no default constructor
  int i;                // OK: i has indeterminate value
  int j = 5;            // OK: j has the value 5
};

struct A {
  A() = default;        // OK
  A(int v) : v(v) { }   // OK
  const int& v = 42;    // OK
};
A a1;                   // error: ill-formed binding of temporary to reference
A a2(1);                // OK, unfortunately

struct V {
  V();
  V(int);
};

struct A : virtual V {
  A();
  A(int);
};

struct B : virtual V {
  B();
  B(int);
};

struct C : A, B, virtual V {
  C();
  C(int);
};

A::A(int i) : V(i) { /* ... */ }
B::B(int i) { /* ... */ }
C::C(int i) { /* ... */ }

V v(1);             // use V(int)
A a(2);             // use V(int)
B b(3);             // use V()
C c(4);             // use V()

class X {
  int a;
  int b;
  int i;
  int j;
public:
  const int& r;
  X(int i): r(a), b(i), i(i), j(this->i) { }
};

class A {
public:
  A(int);
};

class B : public A {
  int j;
public:
  int f();
  B() : A(f()),     // undefined behavior: calls member function but base A not yet initialized
  j(f()) { }        // well-defined: bases are all initialized
};

class C {
public:
  C(int);
};

class D : public B, C {
  int i;
public:
  D() : C(f()),     // undefined behavior: calls member function but base C not yet initialized
  i(f()) { }        // well-defined: bases are all initialized
};

template<class... Mixins>
class X : public Mixins... {
public:
  X(const Mixins&... mixins) : Mixins(mixins)... { }
};

struct B1 {
  B1(int, ...) { }
};

struct B2 {
  B2(double) { }
};

int get();

struct D1 : B1 {
  using B1::B1;     // inherits B1(int, ...)
  int x;
  int y = get();
};

void test() {
  D1 d(2, 3, 4);    // OK: B1 is initialized by calling B1(2, 3, 4),
                    // then d.x is default-initialized (no initialization is performed),
                    // then d.y is initialized by calling get()
  D1 e;             // error: D1 has a deleted default constructor
}

struct D2 : B2 {
  using B2::B2;
  B1 b;
};

D2 f(1.0);          // error: B1 has a deleted default constructor

struct W { W(int); };
struct X : virtual W { using W::W; X() = delete; };
struct Y : X { using X::X; };
struct Z : Y, virtual W { using Y::Y; };
Z z(0);             // OK: initialization of Y does not invoke default constructor of X

template<class T> struct Log : T {
  using T::T;       // inherits all constructors from class T
  ~Log() { std::clog << "Destroying wrapper" << std::endl; }
};

struct A { A(int); };
struct B : A { using A::A; };

struct C1 : B { using B::B; };
struct C2 : B { using B::B; };

struct D1 : C1, C2 {
  using C1::C1;
  using C2::C2;
};

struct V1 : virtual B { using B::B; };
struct V2 : virtual B { using B::B; };

struct D2 : V1, V2 {
  using V1::V1;
  using V2::V2;
};

D1 d1(0);           // error: ambiguous
D2 d2(0);           // OK: initializes virtual B base class, which initializes the A base class
                    // then initializes the V1 and V2 base classes as if by a defaulted default constructor

struct M { M(); M(int); };
struct N : M { using M::M; };
struct O : M {};
struct P : N, O { using N::N; using O::O; };
P p(0);             // OK: use M(0) to initialize N's base class,
                    // use M() to initialize O's base class

struct X { int i; };
struct Y : X { Y(); };                  // non-trivial
struct A { int a; };
struct B : public A { int j; Y y; };    // non-trivial

extern B bobj;
B* pb = &bobj;                          // OK
int* p1 = &bobj.a;                      // undefined behavior: refers to base class member
int* p2 = &bobj.y.i;                    // undefined behavior: refers to member's member

A* pa = &bobj;                          // undefined behavior: upcast to a base class type
B bobj;                                 // definition of bobj

extern X xobj;
int* p3 = &xobj.i;                      // OK, X is a trivial class
X xobj;

struct W { int j; };
struct X : public virtual W { };
struct Y {
  int* p;
  X x;
  Y() : p(&x.j) {   // undefined, x is not yet constructed
    }
};

struct C;
void no_opt(C*);

struct C {
  int c;
  C() : c(0) { no_opt(this); }
};

const C cobj;

void no_opt(C* cptr) {
  int i = cobj.c * 100;         // value of cobj.c is unspecified
  cptr->c = 1;
  cout << cobj.c * 100          // value of cobj.c is unspecified
       << '\n';
}

extern struct D d;
struct D {
  D(int a) : a(a), b(d.a) {}
  int a, b;
};
D d = D(1);                     // value of d.b is unspecified

struct A { };
struct B : virtual A { };
struct C : B { };
struct D : virtual A { D(A*); };
struct X { X(A*); };

struct E : C, D, X {
  E() : D(this),    // undefined behavior: upcast from E* to A* might use path E* → D* → A*
                    // but D is not constructed

                    // “D((C*)this)” would be defined: E* → C* is defined because E() has started,
                    // and C* → A* is defined because C is fully constructed

  X(this) {}        // defined: upon construction of X, C/B/D/A sublattice is fully constructed
};

struct V {
  virtual void f();
  virtual void g();
};

struct A : virtual V {
  virtual void f();
};

struct B : virtual V {
  virtual void g();
  B(V*, A*);
};

struct D : A, B {
  virtual void f();
  virtual void g();
  D() : B((A*)this, this) { }
};

B::B(V* v, A* a) {
  f();              // calls V​::​f, not A​::​f
  g();              // calls B​::​g, not D​::​g
  v->g();           // v is base of B, the call is well-defined, calls B​::​g
  a->f();           // undefined behavior: a's type not a base of B
}

struct V {
  virtual void f();
};

struct A : virtual V { };

struct B : virtual V {
  B(V*, A*);
};

struct D : A, B {
  D() : B((A*)this, this) { }
};

B::B(V* v, A* a) {
  typeid(*this);                // type_­info for B
  typeid(*v);                   // well-defined: *v has type V, a base of B yields type_­info for B
  typeid(*a);                   // undefined behavior: type A not a base of B
  dynamic_cast<B*>(v);          // well-defined: v of type V*, V base of B results in B*
  dynamic_cast<B*>(a);          // undefined behavior: a has type A*, A not a base of B
}

class Thing {
public:
  Thing();
  ~Thing();
  Thing(const Thing&);
};

Thing f() {
  Thing t;
  return t;
}

Thing t2 = f();

struct A {
  void *p;
  constexpr A(): p(this) {}
};

constexpr A g() {
  A loc;
  return loc;
}

constexpr A a;          // well-formed, a.p points to a
constexpr A b = g();    // error: b.p would be dangling ([expr.const])

void h() {
  A c = g();            // well-formed, c.p may point to c or to an ephemeral temporary
}

class Thing {
public:
  Thing();
  ~Thing();
  Thing(Thing&&);
private:
  Thing(const Thing&);
};

Thing f(bool b) {
  Thing t;
  if (b)
    throw t;            // OK: Thing(Thing&&) used (or elided) to throw t
  return t;             // OK: Thing(Thing&&) used (or elided) to return t
}

Thing t2 = f(false);    // OK: no extra copy/move performed, t2 constructed by call to f

struct Weird {
  Weird();
  Weird(Weird&);
};

Weird g() {
  Weird w;
  return w;             // OK: first overload resolution fails, second overload resolution selects Weird(Weird&)
}

template<class T> void g(const T&);

template<class T> void f() {
  T x;
  try {
    T y;
    try { g(x); }
    catch (...) {
      if (/*...*/)
        throw x;        // does not move
      throw y;          // moves
    }
    g(y);
  } catch(...) {
    g(x);
    g(y);               // error: y is not in scope
  }
}