6 Basics [basic]

unsigned char x = 12;
{ unsigned char x = x; }

const int x = 12;
{ enum { x = x }; }

typedef unsigned char T;
template<class T
  = T               // lookup finds the typedef name of unsigned char
  , T               // lookup finds the template parameter
    N = 0> struct A { };

if (int x = f()) {
  int x;            // error: redeclaration of x
}
else {
  int x;            // error: redeclaration of x
}

namespace N {
  int i;
  int g(int a) { return a; }
  int j();
  void q();
}
namespace { int l=1; }
// the potential scope of l is from its point of declaration to the end of the translation unit

namespace N {
  int g(char a) {   // overloads N​::​g(int)
    return l+a;     // l is from unnamed namespace
  }

  int i;            // error: duplicate definition
  int j();          // OK: duplicate function declaration

  int j() {         // OK: definition of N​::​j()
    return g(i);    // calls N​::​g(int)
  }
  int q();          // error: different return type
}

typedef int  c;
enum { i = 1 };

class X {
  char  v[i];                       // error: i refers to ​::​i but when reevaluated is X​::​i
  int  f() { return sizeof(c); }    // OK: X​::​c
  char  c;
  enum { i = 2 };
};

typedef char*  T;
struct Y {
  T  a;                             // error: T refers to ​::​T but when reevaluated is Y​::​T
  typedef long  T;
  T  b;
};

typedef int I;
class D {
  typedef I I;                      // error, even though no reordering involved
};

namespace N {
  template<class T> struct A { };               // #1
  template<class U> void f(U) { }               // #2
  struct B {
    template<class V> friend int g(struct C*);  // #3
  };
}

namespace A {
  namespace N {
    void f();
  }
}
void A::N::f() {
  i = 5;
  // The following scopes are searched for a declaration of i:
  // 1) outermost block scope of A​::​N​::​f, before the use of i
  // 2) scope of namespace N
  // 3) scope of namespace A
  // 4) global scope, before the definition of A​::​N​::​f
}

namespace M {
  class B { };
}

namespace N {
  class Y : public M::B {
    class X {
      int a[i];
    };
  };
}

// The following scopes are searched for a declaration of i:
// 1) scope of class N​::​Y​::​X, before the use of i
// 2) scope of class N​::​Y, before the definition of N​::​Y​::​X
// 3) scope of N​::​Y's base class M​::​B
// 4) scope of namespace N, before the definition of N​::​Y
// 5) global scope, before the definition of N

class B { };
namespace M {
  namespace N {
    class X : public B {
      void f();
    };
  }
}
void M::N::X::f() {
  i = 16;
}

// The following scopes are searched for a declaration of i:
// 1) outermost block scope of M​::​N​::​X​::​f, before the use of i
// 2) scope of class M​::​N​::​X
// 3) scope of M​::​N​::​X's base class B
// 4) scope of namespace M​::​N
// 5) scope of namespace M
// 6) global scope, before the definition of M​::​N​::​X​::​f

struct A {
  typedef int AT;
  void f1(AT);
  void f2(float);
  template <class T> void f3();
};
struct B {
  typedef char AT;
  typedef float BT;
  friend void A::f1(AT);        // parameter type is A​::​AT
  friend void A::f2(BT);        // parameter type is B​::​BT
  friend void A::f3<AT>();      // template argument is B​::​AT
};

namespace N {
  int i = 4;
  extern int j;
}

int i = 2;

int N::j = i;       // N​::​j == 4

namespace N {
  struct S { };
  void f(S);
}

void g() {
  N::S s;
  f(s);     // OK: calls N​::​f
  (f)(s);   // error: N​::​f not considered; parentheses prevent argument-dependent lookup
}

namespace NS {
  class T { };
  void f(T);
  void g(T, int);
}
NS::T parm;
void g(NS::T, float);
int main() {
  f(parm);                      // OK: calls NS​::​f
  extern void g(NS::T, float);
  g(parm, 1);                   // OK: calls g(NS​::​T, float)
}

Translation unit #1:

export module M;
namespace R {
  export struct X {};
  export void f(X);
}
namespace S {
  export void f(R::X, R::X);
}

Translation unit #2:

export module N;
import M;
export R::X make();
namespace R { static int g(X); }
export template<typename T, typename U> void apply(T t, U u) {
  f(t, u);
  g(t);
}

Translation unit #3:

module Q;
import N;
namespace S {
  struct Z { template<typename T> operator T(); };
}
void test() {
  auto x = make();              // OK, decltype(x) is R​::​X in module M
  R::f(x);                      // error: R and R​::​f are not visible here
  f(x);                         // OK, calls R​::​f from interface of M
  f(x, S::Z());                 // error: S​::​f in module M not considered
                                // even though S is an associated namespace
  apply(x, S::Z());             // error: S​::​f is visible in instantiation context, but
                                // R​::​g has internal linkage and cannot be used outside TU #2
}

class A {
public:
  static int n;
};
int main() {
  int A;
  A::n = 42;        // OK
  A b;              // error: A does not name a type
}

class X { };
class C {
  class X { };
  static const int number = 50;
  static X arr[number];
};
X C::arr[number];   // error:
                    // equivalent to ​::​X C​::​arr[C​::​number];
                    // and not to C​::​X C​::​arr[C​::​number];

struct C {
  typedef int I;
};
typedef int I1, I2;
extern int* p;
extern int* q;
p->C::I::~I();      // I is looked up in the scope of C
q->I1::~I2();       // I2 is looked up in the scope of the postfix-expression

struct A {
  ~A();
};
typedef A AB;
int main() {
  AB* p;
  p->AB::~AB();     // explicitly calls the destructor for A
}

struct Node {
  struct Node* Next;            // OK: Refers to injected-class-name Node
  struct Data* Data;            // OK: Declares type Data at global scope and member Data
};

struct Data {
  struct Node* Node;            // OK: Refers to Node at global scope
  friend struct ::Glob;         // error: Glob is not declared, cannot introduce a qualified type ([dcl.type.elab])
  friend struct Glob;           // OK: Refers to (as yet) undeclared Glob at global scope.
  /* ... */
};

struct Base {
  struct Data;                  // OK: Declares nested Data
  struct ::Data*     thatData;  // OK: Refers to ​::​Data
  struct Base::Data* thisData;  // OK: Refers to nested Data
  friend class ::Data;          // OK: global Data is a friend
  friend class Data;            // OK: nested Data is a friend
  struct Data { /* ... */ };    // Defines nested Data
};

struct Data;                    // OK: Redeclares Data at global scope
struct ::Data;                  // error: cannot introduce a qualified type ([dcl.type.elab])
struct Base::Data;              // error: cannot introduce a qualified type ([dcl.type.elab])
struct Base::Datum;             // error: Datum undefined
struct Base::Data* pBase;       // OK: refers to nested Data

struct A { };

struct B {
  struct A { };
  void f(::A* a);
};

void B::f(::A* a) {
  a->~A();                      // OK: lookup in *a finds the injected-class-name
}

struct A { };
namespace N {
  struct A {
    void g() { }
    template <class T> operator T();
  };
}

int main() {
  N::A a;
  a.operator A();               // calls N​::​A​::​operator N​::​A
}

template<typename ...T>
struct AlignedUnion {
  alignas(T...) unsigned char data[max(sizeof(T)...)];
};
int f() {
  AlignedUnion<int, char> au;
  int *p = new (au.data) int;           // OK, au.data provides storage
  char *c = new (au.data) char();       // OK, ends lifetime of *p
  char *d = new (au.data + 1) char();
  return *c + *d;                       // OK
}

struct A { unsigned char a[32]; };
struct B { unsigned char b[16]; };
A a;
B *b = new (a.a + 8) B;                 // a.a provides storage for *b
int *p = new (b->b + 4) int;            // b->b provides storage for *p
                                        // a.a does not provide storage for *p (directly),
                                        // but *p is nested within a (see below)

static const char test1 = 'x';
static const char test2 = 'x';
const bool b = &test1 != &test2;        // always true

#include <cstdlib>
struct X { int a, b; };
X *make_x() {
  // The call to std​::​malloc implicitly creates an object of type X
  // and its subobjects a and b, and returns a pointer to that X object
  // (or an object that is pointer-interconvertible ([basic.compound]) with it),
  // in order to give the subsequent class member access operations
  // defined behavior.
  X *p = (X*)std::malloc(sizeof(struct X));
  p->a = 1;
  p->b = 2;
  return p;
}

#include <cstdlib>

struct B {
  virtual void f();
  void mutate();
  virtual ~B();
};

struct D1 : B { void f(); };
struct D2 : B { void f(); };

void B::mutate() {
  new (this) D2;    // reuses storage --- ends the lifetime of *this
  f();              // undefined behavior
  ... = this;       // OK, this points to valid memory
}

void g() {
  void* p = std::malloc(sizeof(D1) + sizeof(D2));
  B* pb = new (p) D1;
  pb->mutate();
  *pb;              // OK: pb points to valid memory
  void* q = pb;     // OK: pb points to valid memory
  pb->f();          // undefined behavior: lifetime of *pb has ended
}

struct C {
  int i;
  void f();
  const C& operator=( const C& );
};

const C& C::operator=( const C& other) {
  if ( this != &other ) {
    this->~C();                 // lifetime of *this ends
    new (this) C(other);        // new object of type C created
    f();                        // well-defined
  }
  return *this;
}

C c1;
C c2;
c1 = c2;                        // well-defined
c1.f();                         // well-defined; c1 refers to a new object of type C

class T { };
struct B {
   ~B();
};

void h() {
   B b;
   new (&b) T;
}                               // undefined behavior at block exit

struct B {
  B();
  ~B();
};

const B b;

void h() {
  b.~B();
  new (const_cast<B*>(&b)) const B;     // undefined behavior
}

int f(bool b) {
  unsigned char c;
  unsigned char d = c;          // OK, d has an indeterminate value
  int e = d;                    // undefined behavior
  return b ? d : 0;             // undefined behavior if b is true
}